Religions: A Scholarly Journal - Volume 2012, Issue 1

Many of our most religious contemporaries have tended to focus on the beyond and hereafter, as well as its moral prerequisites, while paying relatively little attention to the natural environment. Thus, the environment is not uncommonly identified with a “here-below” that has to be transcended, if not overcome and mastered. This has held especially true as religious faithful read in the perspective of “nature lovers” and “environmentalists” an exclusive focus on this earth as a natural paradise and an end in itself, one that in fact obstructs any access to God.

Similarly, believers like to emphasize the All-Powerfulness of God, thereby belittling the power of man in the cosmic drama. Thus, an overemphasis on the “hand of God” might lead to the unfortunate consequence of a lack of sense of cosmic responsibility. This was illustrated to my dismay by the reflections of a conservative Evangelical Christian who, upon my mentioning the gravity of the current environmental crisis, could only respond with the words “don't be concerned, God will take care of it.” This tendency is, it must be said, reinforced by the spectacle of feverish activism and utter lack of awareness of God’s power over the cosmos that characterizes the secularized mind of the majority, even when it is self-identified as religious.

As understandable as they may circumstantially be, these attitudes are based on the ignorance, or at least the neglect, of two fundamental religious principles. The first teaches that the roots of nature are to be found in God: the beauty and majesty of virgin nature reflect the Divine Qualities, and must therefore be approached as sacred. The second lies in the responsibility with which mankind is entrusted by its Creator to care over nature. Mankind’s God-given privilege of “dominion” over nature is not a license to plunder it, no more than the parents’ God-given authority over their children can legitimize any abuse. Thus, a radical restoration of religious environmental consciousness would presuppose both a sense of the divine presence in the world, and an understanding of mankind’s metaphysical function in the cosmos. Short of an awareness of the anthropo-cosmic unity of God, mankind and nature, a measure of environmental consciousness is indeed possible --as we can observe interestingly in secular Northern Europe, but it misses the point of nature as a symbol and a presence, and condemns itself to remain superficially utilitarian, sentimental or moralistic.

Traditional religions have taught their faithful to be aware of both transcendence and immanence, both the Divine Beyond and the Divine Presence, both Divine power and human freedom and responsibility. Today’s believers need to realize more fully that the here-below proceeds from, and reflects, the Beyond, and that Divine Power does not abolish mankind’s capacities and duties, but in fact enhances them.

The World Health Organisation estimates that climate change since the 1970s is already responsible for 140,000 deaths annually. The uncertainties of climate change raise the possibility that it will bring disaster on a global scale, but also that its impact might be delayed, provided that we take decisive action now. Most of the negative consequences will be felt in the earth's mid-latitudes, already the poorest parts of the world, where secondary effects such as economic disruption, disease, famine and war will be experienced most acutely.

Climate change is caused by humans and all indicators tend to show that it is going to get worse, hence the need for decisive, timely and sustained global political action. These are the expectations with which we host the Doha Climate Change Conference 2012 as part of the 18th session of the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change).

We hope that through this journal our different religious traditions can guide us, at this crucial time in human history, in developing a common discourse inspired by their ancient wisdom. May it teach us how to relate to the environment and to our fellow humans who, in other countries and in future times, will be affected by the economic decisions we make in our own countries at this present time. Our hope is that our religious traditions can remind us to look beyond selfishness, greed and apathy in making economic decisions informed by ethical principles. May we learn how to walk the earth with humility, like the founders of the various religions did, and to leave the earth in a better condition than that in which we inherited it from our forefathers.

Vice Chancellor, Your Royal Highnesses, Director, Ladies and Gentlemen.

It is a very great pleasure for me to be here today to help you celebrate the Oxford Centre's twenty-fifth anniversary. Whereas bits of your Patron are dropping off after the past quarter of a century, I find quite a few bits of the Centre still being added! However, I cannot tell you how encouraged I am that in addition to the Prince of Wales Fellowship, the number of fellowships you now offer continues to grow and also that this Summer you will welcome the fifth group of young people on your Young Muslim Leadership programme which is run in association with my charities. This is a vital contribution to the process of boosting the self-esteem of young Muslims – about whom I care deeply.

I am slightly alarmed that it is now seventeen years since I came here to the Sheldonian to deliver a lecture for the Centre that tried to do just this. I called it “Islam and the West” and, from what I can tell, it clearly struck a chord, and not just here in the U.K. I am still reminded of what I said, particularly when I travel in the Islamic world – in fact, because it was printed, believe it or not, it is the only speech I have ever made which continues to produce a small return!

I wanted to give that lecture to address the dangers of the ignorance and misunderstanding that I felt were growing between the Islamic world and the West in the aftermath of the Cold War. Since then, the situation has both improved and worsened, depending on where you look. Certainly the sorts of advances made by the Oxford Centre have helped to build confidence and understanding, but we all know only too well how some of the things I warned of in that lecture have since come to pass, both here and elsewhere in the world. So it is tremendously important that we continue to work to heal the differences and overcome the misconceptions that still exist. I remain confident that this is possible because there are many values we all share that have the powerful capacity to bind us, rather than what happens when those values are forgotten – or purposefully ignored.

Healing division is also my theme today, but this time it is not the divisions between cultures I want to explore. It is the division that poses a much more fundamental threat to the health and well-being of us all. It is the widening division we are seeing in so many ways between humanity and Nature.

The call for a global ethic to tackle environmental and social injustice is being responded to by Muslims and Christians alike. The concept of ‘human trusteeship’ of creation belongs to both Muslim and Christian traditions, and is central to this response. In this paper I outline and explore this shared concept as: the faithful and sustainable management of earth’s resources and social solidarity that mandates social justice. I also argue that none of this would be possible without societal stability, which necessitates ‘peacebuilding’. For Muslims there is a renewed interest in the principles and purpose of the Shari’a—guidelines for comportment based on the Quran and prophetic sayings (hadith)—towards a renewed concept of trusteeship of the earth. Whilst in the Christian tradition, Jesus’ lessons of ‘transforming initiatives,’ are a source of inspiration in tackling the threats of global warming and human conflict. Having written about Muslim-Christian trusteeship in great detail, highlighting Muslim resources in particular, here I would like to highlight a new angle in the contribution of Jesus, or ‘Isa bin Maryam’ (the son of Mary). I conclude by stating that Jesus’ teaching and example can be powerful tools in the hands of both Muslims and Christians, encouraging them to forge ahead in caring for the planet and one another in the name of their Creator.

For over two decades, the head of the Orthodox Church, His All Holiness Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew, has been one of the most outspoken religious leaders on the ecological crisis and its moral dimension. In alignment with this view, I explore the key themes of the Orthodox spiritual perspective of environmental awareness and action as embodied within the three fundamental principles of icons (religious images), liturgy (religious ritual) and ascesis (religious renunciation). I provide three models of caring for the earth that form the core Biblical message to care for the vulnerable in creation; the ascetic practices of renunciation, responsibility and repentance; and the sacramental concept of mystical communion with God through nature. I conclude the paper by emphasizing the critical importance of frugality and simplicity for all.

For centuries, the Westernisation of Ghana has lead to the devaluation of indigenous ways of life, thought and spirituality or ‘Indigenous Knowledge Systems’ (I.K.S.). It is argued that in general Western thought has also decoupled nature from humankind, which has led to the environmental crisis. Due to the limitations of modern technological and scientific solutions— which originate from the same cultural mindset that caused the destruction to our planet in the first place—it is argued that indigenous religious environmentalism could provide effective solutions. Exploring the case of the Asante Sekyere people of Southern Ghana, this paper shows that I.K.S. still preserved in their native culture is a source of environmental ethics that is inspired by their spiritual cosmology, values and traditional ways of life. The paper outlines how their ‘ecocentric’, environmentally orientated culture is informed by their multifarious spiritual beliefs, encompassing: belief in a transcendent God or Gods; the veneration of ancestors; nature spirits that animate the natural environment (animism); and totemic beliefs based around a sacred identification with an animal, plant or natural phenomenon. These beliefs inform the Sekyere’s core environmental values— respect, cooperation, communalism, care and reciprocity— that manifest in regulatory taboos that conserve natural resources. The paper concludes that alternative ways to solve environmental degradation can be sought in the cultural resources of indigenous people like the Sekyere.

Inter-religious dialogue on ecological issues is not merely a new item to be added to the agenda of existing dialogue between religions: it calls for a thorough reconsideration of the nature and aims of inter-religious dialogue. This paper argues that the ultimate goal of inter-religious dialogue on ecological issues should be the betterment of the whole world. It states that rather than merely reaching for the enhancement of mutual understanding between religions, dialogue must engage in a mutually creative process of transformation amongst the religious traditions involved. Moreover, the solutions to the environmental crisis must allow for a diverse approach that incorporates the local economic, political, cultural and religious context. Furthermore it is argued that, unlike the current ‘universal environmental ethics,’ ‘moral pluralism’ is a more flexible, contextual, creative and dynamic approach better suited to tackling environmental issues that are invariably local in character. In conclusion the paper states that such an approach should source its ethical thought and practice from the world religions.

In seeking to create a sustainable low carbon future we may need a broader basis for analysis than simply economic indicators of growth. This paper argues that, whilst sustainable development by its very definition focuses on the ethics of using resources equitably across generations (intergenerational equity), there needs to be a ‘revisioning’ that encompasses a fuller range of issues that affect the relationship between humans and the Earth. Such a vision, it is argued, must allow for both to thrive -- a value termed ‘human-Earth flourishing’-- and for this to occur the ultimate criterion of progress must be extended beyond finance to include the criteria of ‘environmental health’ and ‘social wellbeing’. The first part of the paper surveys the emergence of a new field of knowledge and force of action that has brought the world religions and ecology together, to find new ethical solutions for our environmental crisis. The second part of the paper outlines the importance and principles of the existing ethical framework of the Earth Charter, and how values drawn from the diversified practices of religions could enhance this existing ethical framework, for a low carbon future with a flourishing Earth community.

Like other great faiths, Judaism is a gloriously wide-ranging tradition, whose texts and values rarely point in just one direction. Still, the overwhelming weight of this sacred tradition points us toward an environmental ethic far more intense than what our society now practices, and suggests a most urgent response to the threat of climate change. Jewish values can help correct the excesses of modern life which got us into today’s climate crisis, and they can help us address it by bringing us back into loving connection with Creation. This article considers six specific approaches drawn from the Jewish tradition: (1) the biblical creation story, which in Jewish tradition points us toward 'enlightened stewardship'; (2) the collective humility engendered by understanding that "The Earth is God's", not ours; (3) conservation mandates via the Jewish law, "thou shall not waste"; (4) other relevant legal categories including "love your neighbor", and the precautionary principle's biblical basis in Deut. 22:8; (5) Jewish theology, which bids us to be like God in giving a preferential option for the poor; and (6) the Jewish annual holidays which root us in cycles of nature, and weekly Sabbath which is central to Judaic conceptions of sustainability.

In this paper I examine the significance of “water symbolism” in the Quran and in Islamic Mysticism. God has entrusted humanity with the care of all creation. Within the Islamic tradition, both scripture and the natural cosmos are recognized as the Signs (ayāt) of God. Therefore, it is our eco-spiritual calling to fulfill this trust towards all of creation as we would care for scripture. This trusteeship and this spiritual concern for God’s creation begin with an awareness of our existing interconnectivity: the oneness of all existence. It is the transformation of poisoned water to sweet drink that symbolizes the transformative power of God’s mercy.

The Eastern Orthodox tradition perceives nature as sacred in two distinct ways: as the manifestation of God’s immanence and presence in creation, and as a transcendent unknowable being that can be sensed in the mystical encounter with creation. This paper illustrates how Orthodoxy expresses this paradoxical belief and outlines its potential resonance with our contemporary understanding of humankind’s responsibilities towards the environment. It discusses the theological principles that inform the Orthodox’ spiritual perception of the natural world including: the Holy Spirit as the source of the innate goodness and vitality of matter; Divine Wisdom, or ‘Sophia’, as the embodiment of this vitality on the Earth; the unique role assigned to humankind, as the link between the rest of creation and God’s Divine Word, or Logos. These concepts are illustrated through expressions of the holy found in imagery taken from nature and used in prayers, hymns and icons; and in the physical presence of water, incense, fruit, and flowers in various rites and customs of Orthodox ritual. Faith in the sanctity— though never divinity— of nature is exemplified in the case of Balkan folk belief, which includes areas of overlap between Muslim and Christian worship, such as natural sites of grace, or ‘barakah’, like caves and springs. The paper concludes with a brief summary of the position on the environment taken by Patriarch Bartholomew, the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople and honorary head of the Eastern Orthodox Church— also known to the press as “the green patriarch.” The paper reflects His All Holiness’ argument that Orthodoxy can make a valuable contribution to finding a solution to the environmental crisis facing us today, by modelling behaviour through the unique “liturgical and ascetical” ethos of this ancient faith.

There can be no basis for ecological responsibility when we commodify the world and monetize our values. The true praxis of ecological responsibility, ethic of sacrifice – that is, "making things sacred". Our ecological responsibility is to treat life as sacred, to regard it as the expression of divine Beauty, and to respond to it out of the compassionate depths of our own primordial nature, which, like its substance, is intrinsically Good. It is by the restoration of our inner beauty that we can recover the outer equilibrium that is the goal of ecological responsibility. It is by discovering what is sacred within our souls that we can discover "the dearest freshness deep down things", and only then can we fulfil the burden of our Trust and restore our harmony with nature.

It has been widely recognized that one of the root causes of the modern environmental crisis has been the rise of consumerism as both a kind of religion and a major human activity that is unsustainable. Many studies have also shown that an excess of consumerism is not a source of human happiness. While many religious environmental writers have dealt with responding to this issue, one traditional source has been relatively rare: the Wisdom tradition in the Hebrew Bible. The Wisdom tradition is found mostly in the books of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and Job but also appears in several of the Psalms. Wisdom literature is also found in such apocryphal books such as Ben Sira and the Wisdom of Solomon. It also is found in the Dead Sea Scrolls, the New Testament and rabbinic literature. Wisdom literature is also found in many other ancient Near Eastern cultures in Egypt and Mesopotamia. The Wisdom tradition sees Creation as a primary source for human happiness through the emulation of the order of Creation and the values learned. The Wisdom tradition is thus a good source for developing a Jewish ethic of sustainability. This article will outline the Wisdom tradition’s main ideas as they relate to sustainability and will show how they can be applied today as a counter tradition to the religion of consumerism.

There can be no basis for ecological responsibility when we commodify the world and monetize our values. The true praxis of ecological responsibility, ethic of sacrifice – that is, "making things sacred". Our ecological responsibility is to treat life as sacred, to regard it as the expression of divine Beauty, and to respond to it out of the compassionate depths of our own primordial nature, which, like its substance, is intrinsically Good. It is by the restoration of our inner beauty that we can recover the outer equilibrium that is the goal of ecological responsibility. It is by discovering what is sacred within our souls that we can discover "the dearest freshness deep down things", and only then can we fulfil the burden of our Trust and restore our harmony with nature.

KEYWORDS: Stewardship, unitive vision of beauty, seeing God everywhere, Gaian ecosystem, anthropocentrism, ethic of sacrifice.

Exploring the presence of environmental ethics in the Buddhist Jātaka stories, from the scriptures of the Theravāda tradition, is not a new idea. The Jātaka stories are a collection of birth-stories, or ‘folklore,’ that communicate appropriate models of comportment in situations associated with environmental concern. The actors of these stories follow the escapades of humans and non-humans (including animals, trees and spirits). Although principally in agreement with this approach, in this paper I would like to explore a different idea that may support the formation of an environmental ethics based on the stories. In so doing the paper focuses on ‘moral tools’ and principles that can be used in practical decision making, related to the environment; the virtues that can be taken from the stories, that serve to attune us to environmental awareness and greater concern; and the innovative application of virtues that could inspire hitherto ‘undefined’ responses to the environment. The paper seeks to highlight the rich potential of the Jātaka stories—and their store of creative forms of morality— to further our understanding of early Buddhism and provide guidelines towards a modern environmental virtue ethic.

This paper outlines a tripartite approach to ecology, based on the ancient Hindu text, the Bhagavad Gita. It proposes a holistic approach to life based on a philosophical trinity that encompasses: ecology, spirituality and humanity. This trinity is sourced from and outlined in the Sanskrit concepts of human/nature relationships (yagna), human/divine relationships (tapas) and human/human relationships (dana). These terms are translated into the conceptual themes of ‘Soil’, ‘Soul’ and ‘Society’, and explored in light of current environmental issues and trends. Taking inspiration from the Hindu text, it is proposed: that we must realise, rather than being separate, we are interdependent and part of nature (Soil); that we must reconnect with our souls, and become at peace with ourselves if we are to have a harmonious relationship with nature (Soul); and that a movement is needed to create fairer conditions for humanity, that foster social harmony, and align with care for the earth and our own souls (Society). It is argued that each element of this tripartite philosophy must be applied together because they are interdependent; only in this way can we solve the disharmony, violence and destruction being caused to humanity and the environment.

يتّجه العديدُ من المتدينين المعاصرين إلى التّركيز على عالمِ الآخرة، وكذلك على الجوانبِ الأخلاقيةِ والاجتماعية، مع اهتمام ضئيل نسبيا بالبيئة الطبيعية. والسبب في ذلك أن هؤلاء يعتبرون في كثير من الأحيان أن البيئة تمثل هذه الحياة الدنيا، التي عزموا على الترفع عنها، إذا لم يتمكنوا من السيطرة عليها أو تجاوزها، وهذا ما يلحظونه. وبشكل خاص لدى (عشاق الطبيعة) و (البيئة) الذين يركزون فقط من وجهة نظرهم على هذه الأرض باعتبارها الجنة الطبيعية والغاية في حد ذاتها، وهذا كفيل في نظر المتدينين أن يعرقل سعيهم إلى الله. يحرص المؤمنون كذلك على التأكيد على القدرة الكاملة لله في الكون، وبالتالي التقليل من قدرة وتأثير الإنسان على الدراما الكونية. وهكذا، فإن التركيز المفرط على (قدرة الله) قد يؤدي إلى نتيجة ينعدم فيها الشعور بالمسؤولية الكونية. وقد يتجلى هذا في الرد -الذي أسفني- لأحد الإنجيليّين المتديّنين عند ذكر خطورة الأزمة البيئية الحالية، أجاب بقوله: (لا تقلق، الله سيرعاها). هذا الاتجاه يقابله ذلك المشهد الرائع من النشاط المحموم والنفي الكلي لقدرة الله على الكون، والذي يميّز العقليّة العلمانيّة عند غالبيّة الناس ولو كانت، في بعض الأحيان، تعتبر نفسها أنها متدينة. كما يفهم أن هذه المواقف قد تكون آنية، وتستند إما على الجهل، أو على أقل تقدير على الإهمال لمبدأين أساسيين في الدين: الأول يقرر أن جذور الطبيعة هي في الأصل من الله من حيث أن الجمال والعظمة في الطبيعة البكر تعكسان الصفات الإلهية، وبالتالي اقترنت الطبيعة بصفة القدسية. والثاني يكمن في المسؤولية التي تعهّد بها الخالق للبشريّة لرعاية الطبيعة، وهو يمثل امتيازًا للبشرية وهبة لها من الله. و(هيمنة) الإنسان على الطبيعة ليست رخصة لنهبها، ومثل هذه المسؤولية مثل السلطة التي وهبها الله للوالدين على أبنائهما التي لا ينبغي أن تضفي الشرعية على الإساءة أيا كانت. وبالتالي، فإن عملية الإستعادة الجذرية للوعي البيئي من المنظور الديني تفترض في آن واحد الشعور بالحضور الإلهي في العالم وفهم الوظيفة البشرية الميتافيزيقية في الكون. إن من الممكن التوصل إلى مقياس للوعي البيئي من دون إيجاد نظرة موحّدة لله والكون والطبيعة كما نلاحظ ذلك في شمال أوروبا العلمانية، التي نجحت نسبيا، إلا أنها تجاهلت الطبيعة كرمز والحضرة الإلهية، وبالتالي ظلت هذه التجربة، في كثير من الأحيان، سطحية، نفعية، أو عاطفية أو مجرد واعظة. إنَّ من المؤكّد أنّ الديانات التقليدية تعلّم أتباعها أن يعوا مبدأي التنزيه (Transcendence) والتشبيه (Immanence)، أو الإله الماورائي، المنّزه عن أي تشبيه (Divine Beyond)، والحضرة الإلهيّة (Divine Presence) أوفي ما يتعلق بالسلطة الإلهية وحرية الإنسان ومسؤوليته. المؤمنون اليوم بحاجة إلى أن يدركوا تماما أنّ الحياة الدنيا مستمدّة من الماورائي وتعكسها، وفي نهاية الأمر، إنّ القدرة الإلهية لا تنفي ولا تلغي القدرات البشرية وواجباتها، ولكن في الواقع تعززها وتثريتها.

تقدر منظمة الصحة العالمية أن ظاهرة التغير المناخي كانت سببا منذ ١٩٧۰ في وفاة ١٤۰۰۰۰ حالة سنويا. التوقعات المحتملة للآثار الناجمة عن تغير المناخ تشير إلى احتمال وقوع كارثة على نطاق عالمي، ولكن، في الوقت ذاته يمكن أيضا تأخير تلك الآثار، شريطة أن تتخذ إجراءات حاسمة من الآن. ومن المتوقع أن تظهر معظم الآثار السلبية في خطوط العرض المتوسطة للأرض، والتي تعد بالفعل أفقر مناطق العالم، وهي أساسا تعيش تحت المعاناة الشديدة من جراء الاضطرابات الاقتصادية، من ناحية، والمجاعة والأمراض والحروب، من ناحية أخرى. وظاهرة التغير المناخي تعد نتيجة لأفعال البشر، وجميع المؤشرات تميل إلى إظهار أنه سوف تزداد سوءا في السنوات المقبلة، وبالتالي بات من الضروري اتخاذ إجراءات حاسمة في الوقت المناسب، ووضع سياسة شاملة ومستدامة لهذا الهدف. ففي هذا الصدد، ستستضيف الدوحة مؤتمر الدوحة لتغير المناخ عام ٢۰١٢، كجزء من الدورة ١٨ لمؤتمر الأطراف في اتفاقية تغير المناخ (اتفاقية الأمم المتحدة الإطارية بشأن تغير المناخ). و في هذا الإطار تسعى مجلة أديان والتي يصدرها مركز الدوحة الدولي لحوار الأديان، في نشر وعي بيئي بإشراك نخبة من المختصين في مجال التقاليد الدينية المختلفة لإثراء موضوع البيئة من المنظور الديني ونأمل من خلال هذ الطرح، أن نصل إلى إرشادات نافعة وإسهامات، علها تضيف جديدا في الوعي البيئي العالمي، في هذه المرحلة الحاسمة من تاريخ البشرية. كما أنه من المهم أن ندرك بأن القرارات الاقتصادية التي نتخذها اليوم سوف تكون لها آثار سلبية عميقة في مستقبل البشرية جمعاء؛ لأن الكرة الأرضية أضحت قرية واحدة. أملنا أن تقاليدنا الدينية ستساعدنا في إدراك المخاطر التي تحدق بنا جراء نتيجة الآثار السلبية على البيئة من حولنا. ولذا وجب علينا بأن نتعاون لمواجهة هذه التحديات ونتخطى السلوكيات السلبية من الجشع والأنانية واللامبالاة، وأن نأخذ بعين الاعتبار المبادئ الأخلاقية الدينية الرامية لحماية الإنسان وإسعاده أساسا، في اتخاذنا للقرارات الاقتصادية التي تتعلق في مستقبلنا البيئِيِّ. وخلاصة الأمر، إن هذه الأخلاق ترشدنا بأن نتواضع للناس ونتعامل برفق مع البيئة التي هي جزء من حياتنا، مقتدين بذلك بمؤسسي الديانات المختلفة. وكما ورثناها من أجدادنا، أن نورث الأرض للأجيال القادمة، وهي أفضل حالا مما هي عليه اليوم.